I think and write about happiness: how people have understood it in the past and what that means for us today.

Happiness isn’t just a feeling—it’s a demand. But what exactly does it ask of us? Every theory of happiness carries assumptions about who we are, what we owe to others, and what it means to live well. Some say happiness comes from self-mastery—reason keeping the passions in check, autonomy shielding us from dependence. Others see it as something relational—built through care, shaped by our surroundings, or even gifted to us from beyond.

These tensions run deep in early modern moral philosophy, where happiness takes many forms: a personal achievement, a social construct, a divine ascent. But this conversation has never been limited to Europe. My work brings Descartes and Malebranche into dialogue with Mullā Sadrā, who challenges the very idea that we must choose between inner fulfillment and outward transformation.